Vendor contracts in the Czech Republic: 5 clauses that save you in court

When a business relationship with a vendor turns sour in the Czech Republic, the difference between financial recovery and complete loss often comes down to five essential contractual clauses. This article reveals which specific provisions protect your company when disputes arise, how Czech courts enforce them, and why most standard vendor contracts lack the legal backbone they need. You will discover exactly which clauses save businesses from costly litigation and how to implement them before problems occur.

The hidden weakness in most vendor contracts

Every day, companies in the Czech Republic sign vendor contracts that look professional on the surface but collapse under legal scrutiny when a dispute arises. The problem is not that these contracts are poorly written—it is that they are written without understanding how Czech courts actually enforce them according to the Civil Code (Act No. 89/2012 Coll.).

Czech commercial law differs fundamentally from the legal systems many international companies are familiar with. A contract that would be perfectly enforceable under English or American law may become worthless under Czech civil law if it lacks specific formulations, precise definitions, and legally recognized structures.

ARROWS Law Firm regularly advises foreign companies operating in the Czech Republic who discover, often too late, that their vendor contracts do not provide the protection they assumed. The Czech Civil Code creates expectations and obligations that are not obvious to those trained in other legal systems.

When a vendor fails to deliver goods, provides defective materials, or delays completion, the remedies available to you depend entirely on how your contract was drafted. Without the right clauses, you may find yourself unable to suspend work, retain goods as security, claim penalties for breach, or even terminate the agreement without facing countersuit.

This article addresses five critical clauses that Czech courts recognize and enforce. These provisions are not theoretical—they are based on how Czech judges actually rule in real disputes. Incorporating them into your vendor contracts transforms them from mere agreements into enforceable legal documents that protect your business when relationships break down.

How Czech courts interpret vendor contracts differently

Before examining the five essential clauses, it is important to understand how Czech law approaches contract interpretation. This foundation determines whether your protective provisions will actually work in court.

In the Czech Republic, contracts are interpreted differently than in common law jurisdictions. Czech civil law places heavy emphasis on the intention of the parties, established business practices ( zvyklosti ), and the principle of "fair dealing" (in Czech, poctivost ). When contract language is ambiguous, Czech courts look to see which party drafted the unclear language and interpret it strictly against that party.

This is called the contra proferentem rule (§ 557 of the Civil Code), and it applies unless parties expressly agree otherwise or are both professionals in the field where specific rules apply. More importantly, Czech courts may invalidate contractual provisions if they violate "good morals" ( dobré mravy ).

Courts may also invalidate provisions if they violate mandatory provisions of the law protecting the weaker party, though in B2B relations, this protection is less strict than in consumer law. A clause that seems perfectly enforceable when you draft it may be declared void if a judge decides it fundamentally lacks a serious intent or is indefinite.

This is why precision matters far more in Czech contracts than in many other jurisdictions. The practical consequence is that vague language is dangerous in Czech vendor contracts. A provision stating "the vendor must deliver on time" sounds straightforward, but without specific definitions, it is risky.

Without defining what constitutes timely delivery, what circumstances excuse delay, and what consequences follow breaches, a Czech court may find such obligation difficult to enforce effectively. The clause lacks sufficient definition to be legally binding in a way that allows for immediate sanctions.

ARROWS Law Firm works with vendors and buyers across the European Union and understands these nuances intimately. The lawyers at ARROWS Law Firm have represented countless companies that discovered their contracts did not work the way they expected in Czech court disputes. Many of these problems could have been prevented with properly drafted protective clauses.

Why standard templates fail in Czech court

International companies often use contract templates from their home jurisdictions and assume these documents will function equally well in the Czech Republic. This assumption regularly proves false, sometimes with catastrophic financial consequences.

A vendor contract that is legally valid in Germany, Poland, or Austria may be unenforceable in the Czech Republic because it does not comply with Czech formal requirements. A penalty clause drafted according to Polish or German law may be completely ineffective under Czech law if it fails to specify the exact duty it secures, or it might unintentionally preclude you from claiming damages.

The risk extends beyond simple translation problems. Czech courts apply specific legal tests to determine whether clauses are reasonable, whether withdrawal from the contract is justified, and what remedies are available. Meeting these legal tests requires precise contractual language that anticipates how Czech judges will evaluate disputes. Most standard templates do not include these specific formulations.

microFAQ – Legal tips on vendor contract basics

1. Can I use my company's standard contract template from my home country for Czech vendors?
Not without significant modification. Czech law imposes formal requirements and recognizes only certain contractual structures. Using a foreign template without professional review exposes you to the risk that key provisions—especially regarding penalties and liability—will be unenforceable. ARROWS Law Firm can adapt your existing contracts to Czech legal requirements by writing to office@arws.cz.

2. What happens if my vendor contract is ambiguous?
Czech courts interpret ambiguous language strictly against the party who drafted it ( contra proferentem ). If you drafted the contract, unclear provisions will be interpreted in your vendor's favor. This is why precision is essential, and why professional contract review by the lawyers at ARROWS Law Firm saves money in the long run.

3. Are old contracts automatically still enforceable?
Yes, but they must be interpreted in line with the Civil Code effective since 2014. If you rely on templates created before 2014, they likely contain obsolete references (e.g., to the Commercial Code) and miss key mechanisms like the "executive summary" rule for general terms and conditions (§ 1753). If you are unsure whether your existing vendor agreements still work, office@arws.cz can review them.

Clause one: The definition of material breach and withdrawal rights

The first and most immediately practical clause concerns what happens when a vendor fails to perform. Most vendor contracts vaguely state that delays or defects are "breaches," but they do not clearly define when a breach becomes serious enough to justify immediate termination or penalty charges.

This vagueness creates a trap. Under Czech law (§ 2002 of the Civil Code), you can withdraw from the contract effectively only if the vendor commits a "material breach" ( podstatné porušení ). The law defines this as a breach where the breaching party knew or should have known that the other party would not have entered into the contract if they had foreseen such a breach.

This is a subjective and difficult standard to prove in court. The solution is to include a clause that explicitly defines what constitutes a material breach in your specific vendor relationship.

For example, a properly drafted clause might read: "The Parties agree that a material breach pursuant to § 2002 of the Civil Code includes, but is not limited to: failure to deliver the ordered goods within thirty (30) days after the agreed delivery date, or if delivered goods fail to meet the quality specifications outlined in Appendix A." This specificity transforms a vague legal concept into a clear contractual trigger.

Why does this matter? Under the Czech Civil Code, a material breach gives you the right to withdraw from the contract without further notice. But you must establish that the breach is truly material, and you must act without undue delay.

Without a contractual definition of material breach, you face an uphill battle proving in court that the vendor's conduct justified immediate withdrawal. A second benefit is related to the suspension of performance. Under Czech law (§ 1912 - plea of non-performance), you generally do not have to perform your obligations if the other party fails to perform theirs.

However, clear contractual wording avoids disputes about who breached first. By explicitly stating that you may suspend payments or other performance upon specific breaches, you solidify your legal position.

The suspension clause should include procedural requirements: "If the Vendor commits a material breach as defined above, the Buyer may immediately suspend its own performance obligations (including payments). The Buyer shall notify the Vendor in writing of the breach. If the breach is not cured within the agreed period, the suspension remains in effect until the Vendor achieves substantial compliance or the contract is terminated."

How suspension clauses protect you

Without a clear right to suspend or withhold payment defined in the contract or supported by a clear breach of the other party, stopping payments puts you at legal risk. The vendor can argue that you breached the contract by stopping payments, and they can claim default interest.

With a properly drafted clause and reliance on § 1912 or § 2108 (right to withhold price for defects), stopping payments becomes a legitimate defense, not a breach. The vendor cannot claim damages for work suspension because you legally exercised your right. This shifts the negotiating power back to you.

A real example illustrates the difference. A manufacturing company in Prague ordered metal components from a vendor who repeatedly delivered substandard materials. Without a clear definition of material breach, when the buyer stopped accepting shipments, the vendor sued for breach of contract.

The court had to determine if the defects were "material" under the statutory definition, which was a lengthy and uncertain process. With a defined material breach clause, the same scenario plays out differently. When materials fail to meet the agreed specifications (defined as material breach), the buyer immediately withdraws from the contract or invokes the statutory right to withhold the purchase price.

The legal ground is clear, and the vendor is forced to negotiate or fix the issue. The lawyers at ARROWS Law Firm regularly incorporate these specific definitions into vendor contracts for foreign companies operating in Prague. These provisions have proven essential when disputes arise, giving clients the legal authority to protect themselves.

microFAQ – Legal tips on material breach definitions

1. If I suspend payments without a specific clause, can the vendor sue me?
You rely on the statutory "plea of non-performance" (§ 1912) or right to withhold price due to defects (§ 2108). However, if the court finds the vendor did not actually breach (or the breach was insignificant), you will be in default. A clear contract clause defining specific breaches reduces this risk significantly. The lawyers at ARROWS Law Firm can ensure your contracts include this critical protection.

2. How long should the vendor have to cure a breach before I can terminate?
This depends on the contract. If the breach is defined as "material," you can often withdraw immediately (§ 2002). If "immaterial," you must give a reasonable additional period (§ 1978). Your contract should specify these periods clearly (e.g., 10 days) to avoid arguments about what is "reasonable." ARROWS Law Firm can tailor these timeframes to match your business needs.

3. What if the vendor argues the breach is not really "material" under my definition?
If you have explicitly agreed in the contract that "Event X is a material breach," the court will generally respect this agreement. This is why your material breach clause should be specific. If you need help refining these definitions, write to office@arws.cz.

Clause two: Contractual penalty provisions that Czech courts actually enforce

The second essential clause addresses contractual penalties for breach. This is one of the most misunderstood areas of Czech commercial law, and the consequences of getting it wrong are severe.

In the Czech Republic, contractual penalties— smluvní pokuta —are a powerful tool (§ 2048 of the Civil Code). Unlike in some jurisdictions where penalties are unenforceable, Czech law welcomes them. A vendor can breach by failing to deliver goods, by providing defective materials, or by violating confidentiality.

Critically, the penalty is enforceable even if the creditor (you, the buyer) suffered no actual financial damage from the breach. This is why Czech contractual penalties are so powerful—they are a flat-rate sanction designed to motivate compliance.

However, there is a major trap: Unless expressly agreed otherwise, payment of a contractual penalty precludes the right to claim damages for the same breach (§ 2050 of the Civil Code). This means if you have a penalty of 1,000 EUR for late delivery, but the delay causes you a loss of 50,000 EUR, you can only claim the 1,000 EUR penalty.

You lose the right to the remaining 49,000 EUR in damages unless your contract specifically says: "The payment of the contractual penalty does not affect the right to claim damages in full amount." Furthermore, Czech courts can reduce ("moderate") a penalty that is "unreasonably high" (§ 2051). The vendor must ask the court to reduce it, and the court will look at the value of the secured obligation and the circumstances.

Structuring penalties so they survive court challenge

The solution is to include a penalty clause that deals with the damages issue and is specific about the amount. A properly drafted clause might read: "For failure to deliver ordered goods within the agreed delivery date, the Vendor shall pay the Buyer a contractual penalty of 0.1% of the total contract price per day of delay. Payment of the contractual penalty does not prejudice the Buyer's right to claim compensation for damages arising from the breach of duty to which the contractual penalty applies."

Why does this work? First, it saves your right to damages (by overriding the § 2050 default), and second, it quantifies the penalty. When a vendor challenges the penalty in court, having a reasonable percentage (usually between 0.05% to 0.5% per day depending on the sector) makes it defensible.

A second critical element is to include different penalties for different types of breaches. Delivering goods one day late should not necessarily carry the same penalty as violating confidentiality.

The difference between proper and improper penalty clauses

The practical difference became apparent in a case where a contract included a penalty clause stating simply: "Vendor shall pay 100,000 CZK for any breach of this contract." This is dangerous. It is likely to be considered disproportionate for minor breaches and potentially void for indefiniteness.

In contrast, ARROWS Law Firm drafted a penalty clause for a client stating: "1. For delay in delivery: 0.2% of the price per day. 2. For breach of confidentiality: 500,000 CZK per violation. The right to damages remains unaffected."

This differentiation demonstrates that the parties carefully considered the gravity of each breach. Courts are more likely to uphold penalties that are clearly thought through and specifically tailored.

ARROWS Law Firm has negotiated dozens of vendor contracts that include carefully calibrated penalty clauses. The lawyers at ARROWS Law Firm understand how Czech courts evaluate these clauses and how to ensure you don't accidentally waive your right to damages.

Risks and sanctions	How ARROWS helps (office@arws.cz)
Loss of right to damages: If you rely on the statutory default, accepting a penalty means you cannot claim damages exceeding that penalty.	Damages preservation clause: ARROWS explicitly drafts clauses stating that penalties do not affect the right to full compensation for damages.
Penalty reduced by court: An unreasonably high penalty can be moderated by a judge.	Tailored penalty drafting: ARROWS advises on reasonable market rates for penalties (e.g., daily percentages) to minimize the risk of judicial moderation.
Unenforceable penalty: Penalties that do not clearly specify the breached duty are void.	Specific trigger definitions: ARROWS links penalties to precise breaches (delay, quality, confidentiality) to ensure validity.

Clause three: Warranty and liability limitations that protect both parties

The third essential clause addresses liability for defects and warranties. This area is frequently misunderstood because foreign companies often confuse statutory liability with voluntary warranties.

In B2B (business-to-business) relationships under the Czech Civil Code, there is no automatic 24-month warranty like there is in consumer law. Instead, the law (§ 2099 and following) provides for "liability for defects" ( práva z vadného plnění ). This statutory liability generally covers only defects that exist at the moment risk of damage passes to the buyer (usually delivery), even if they manifest later (hidden defects).

If you want a true warranty that covers defects arising after delivery (e.g., during use), you must explicitly agree on a "Quality Guarantee" ( Záruka za jakost - § 2113). Without this clause, if a machine breaks down after 6 months due to wear or a new issue, the vendor might not be liable unless you prove the defect existed at delivery.

A proper warranty clause for a buyer should read: "The Vendor provides a Quality Guarantee for a period of 24 months from the date of acceptance. During this period, the goods shall remain fit for their customary purpose and retain their customary properties."

Conversely, vendors often want to limit their liability. In B2B relationships, parties can limit or exclude liability for damages (§ 2898), except for damages caused intentionally or by gross negligence, or damages to natural rights of a person.

A balanced liability clause might read: "Vendor's liability for damages is limited to the total price paid under this Contract. This limitation does not apply to damages caused by intent or gross negligence."

Understanding the difference between defects and damages

A critical distinction under Czech law is the difference between claims from defects (repair, replacement, discount, withdrawal) and claims for damages (compensation for lost profit, harm to other property).

If a vendor delivers a defective machine:

1. Defect claim: You want the machine fixed or replaced.

2. Damages claim: The machine exploded and destroyed your factory wall. You want money for the wall and lost production.

A liability limitation clause usually targets the second category (damages). It effectively says that they will fix the machine (warranty), but they won't pay for your lost factory production if it breaks.

The practical importance of this distinction became apparent in a dispute ARROWS Law Firm handled. A vendor supplied components that failed, causing a production halt. The contract had a valid Quality Guarantee (so the vendor had to replace parts) but also a valid Liability Cap limiting damages to 10% of the contract price. The buyer got new parts but could not recover the millions lost in production time, which underscores why reviewing liability caps is vital for buyers.

When liability limitations do not apply

It is critical to understand that liability limitations are void if they exclude liability for "harm caused to the natural rights of an individual" or for intentional/grossly negligent conduct. Furthermore, a limitation that makes the contract virtually meaningless could be challenged as invalid for lack of serious intent.

The lawyers at ARROWS Law Firm help vendors and buyers navigate these boundaries. When drafting warranty and liability clauses, ARROWS Law Firm ensures the proper distinction between the Quality Guarantee and statutory liability is made.

microFAQ – Legal tips on warranty and liability limitations

1. Do I have a 2-year warranty automatically in B2B?
No. You have statutory liability for defects present at delivery. For a true warranty covering future defects, you must negotiate a "Quality Guarantee" clause. ARROWS Law Firm can draft this to ensure you are covered.

2. Can the vendor exclude all liability?
They can exclude liability for many types of damages, but not for intentional harm or gross negligence. Complete exclusion of liability for defects (§ 1916) is possible in B2B but must not be "unconscionable." As a buyer, you should resist broad exclusions.

3. What is the difference between warranty liability and liability for damages?
Warranty/Defect liability fixes the bad product itself. Damages liability compensates for the financial mess the bad product caused (lost profit, damage to other things). These are separate legal claims in the Czech Republic.

Clause four: Remedies for breach and procedures for claiming them

The fourth essential clause specifies what remedies are available if a vendor breaches the contract and, critically, what procedures must be followed to claim them.

Under Czech law, if a delivery is defective, the buyer must inspect it "as soon as possible" and report defects "without undue delay" (§ 2112). If you fail to report defects in time, a court will deny your claim if the vendor objects.

A properly drafted remedies clause brings certainty to these vague statutory terms:

Inspection and reporting procedures: "Buyer shall inspect delivered goods within ten (10) business days of delivery. Any apparent defects must be reported to Vendor in writing within five (5) business days of inspection. Hidden defects must be reported within five (5) business days of discovery, but no later than two (2) years from delivery."

Hierarchy of claims: The Civil Code establishes a hierarchy of claims based on whether the breach is material or immaterial. A contract can simplify this: "In case of any defect, Buyer has the option to demand: (a) repair, (b) replacement, (c) reasonable discount, or (d) withdrawal from the contract if the defect prevents proper use."

Documentation requirements: "All notices of defects (Claims) must be in writing and delivered via email or Czech data box ( datová schránka ). The Claim must include a description of the defect and photographic evidence."

Why is this structure important? First, it defines "without undue delay," preventing the vendor from arguing you waited too long. Second, it clarifies your options. Under the statutory default (§ 2106), if you don't choose your remedy immediately when reporting the defect, the right of choice might shift to the vendor or revert to a default.

The importance of procedural compliance in Czech courts

Czech courts are strict about the "timely notification" rule. A company in Prague lost a lawsuit for defective goods simply because they complained about the defects over the phone and only sent a written letter three months later. The court ruled this was not "without undue delay."

The lawyers at ARROWS Law Firm frequently encounter disputes where the underlying breach is clear but procedural failures prevent recovery. To avoid this, ARROWS Law Firm includes detailed but practical procedures in vendor contracts.

Setting reasonable time limits

While you want time to inspect, the contract must balance this. A clause giving you "one year to inspect and report apparent defects" might be seen as bypassing the statutory requirement of prompt inspection. A specific period like 14 or 30 days is generally safe and enforceable.

Clause five: Termination, consequences of termination, and non-compete restrictions

The fifth essential clause addresses how to get out of the contract and what happens afterwards. The termination clause should distinguish between termination by notice ( výpověď ) and withdrawal ( odstoupení ).

Ending a contract by notice usually applies to indefinite terms and does not require a specific reason. Withdrawal cancels the contract immediately due to a material breach (as discussed in Clause One), acting ex tunc (from the beginning) or ex nunc (for the future), depending on the nature of performance.

A complete termination clause might read: " Termination for Convenience: Either party may terminate this Agreement by providing three (3) months' written notice. Withdrawal for Cause: If either party materially breaches this Agreement, the non-breaching party may withdraw from the contract with immediate effect. Effects of Termination: Upon termination, Vendor shall complete pending orders unless Buyer instructs otherwise."

In B2B relations, non-compete clauses must be handled with care to avoid violating competition law (antitrust). A blanket ban on "competing" might be void, although in specific relationships like commercial agency, a non-compete for up to 2 years is allowed.

In general supply contracts, it is safer to draft "Non-Solicitation" clauses or confidentiality clauses. "For a period of two (2) years after termination, Vendor agrees not to actively solicit customers introduced by Buyer, nor to use Buyer's confidential technical specifications to manufacture competing products."

The legal limits on non-compete clauses in Czech law

Under EU and Czech competition law, agreements that partition markets or fix prices are illegal. A non-compete must be reasonable in geography, scope, and time, and usually requires a specific justification (protection of know-how). If you are not a Commercial Agent, a strict non-compete might require compensation to be enforceable or could be invalid if it restricts competition appreciably.

ARROWS Law Firm has significant experience with drafting valid restrictions that protect your business without crossing the line into illegal anticompetitive behavior.

What happens when you terminate a vendor relationship

You must ensure that the termination notice is delivered securely (Data Box or registered mail) and that you have settled accounts for work already done. The contract should explicitly state that "Termination does not affect the right to damages or contractual penalties incurred prior to termination."

Payment terms and protecting cash flow during disputes

While not strictly one of the five essential protective clauses, payment terms deserve specific attention. Under Czech law, if no time is set, payment is due immediately upon request (§ 1958). In commercial practice, 30 days is standard.

Czech law permits a "right of retention" ( zadržovací právo - § 1395) to secure a due debt. However, this applies to retaining physical goods. However, more practically for defective performance, the Buyer can withhold the purchase price corresponding to the defect until the defect is removed.

A protective clause should confirm this: "Buyer is entitled to withhold up to 100% of the price of defective goods until the defects are fully remedied." This gives you massive leverage.

You should also include a set-off clause: "Buyer is entitled to set off any of its claims against the Vendor (including claims for penalties or damages) against the Vendor's claims for payment." While set-off is generally allowed by law, contractual confirmation prevents the vendor from excluding it in their own General Terms.

Executive summary for management

Financial impact of proper contract drafting: Vendor contracts lacking protective clauses regularly result in disputes where companies cannot recover damages or enforce remedies. Investing in professional contract drafting prevents these specific legal pitfalls.

Risk of non-enforceability: Foreign templates often fail in CZ because they ignore local distinctions, such as the difference between warranty and statutory liability, or the specific rules for penalties.

Operational complexity: Clear contractual procedures for reporting defects and claiming remedies ("without undue delay") reduce the likelihood of litigation dismissal due to technicalities.

Leverage: Properly drafted definitions of material breach and rights to withhold payment give you the leverage to force vendors to cure problems without going to court.

Conclusion

Vendor contracts in the Czech Republic are complex legal instruments. The difference between a contract that protects your business and one that fails often comes down to clearly defining material breach, correctly structuring penalties to preserve damages claims, and understanding the difference between statutory liability and quality guarantees.

The lawyers at ARROWS Law Firm regularly advise vendors and buyers throughout the Czech Republic and across the European Union. ARROWS Law Firm has negotiated dozens of vendor contracts that include protective clauses tailored to Czech law.

Do not leave your vendor relationships to standard templates. To have your vendor contracts reviewed or drafted by experienced Czech commercial law specialists, please write to office@arws.cz.

FAQ – Frequently asked legal questions about vendor contracts in the Czech Republic

1. If I have an existing vendor contract that does not include the clauses discussed in this article, can I add them now?
You can propose amendments (addendums) to existing contracts at any time. Both parties must agree. If you are renewing a contract or placing a new major order, that is the perfect time to update the terms. ARROWS Law Firm can help draft these amendments.

2. What is the most important clause to include in a vendor contract?
From a litigation perspective, a properly drafted contractual penalty clause that explicitly preserves the right to damages is crucial. Without it, you are capped at the penalty amount and cannot recover your actual losses.

3. If my vendor contract includes a choice-of-law clause selecting another country's law (e.g., German law), can I still rely on Czech law protections?
If you chose German law, then German law applies to the interpretation of the contract. However, if the dispute is litigated in Czech courts, procedural rules will be Czech. Also, certain mandatory Czech rules (overriding mandatory provisions) might still apply if the performance is in CZ. It is cleaner to align the governing law with the location of the business to avoid complex conflict-of-law battles.

4. If the vendor is located in another EU country, do these clauses apply?
If the contract is governed by Czech law (which you can choose), yes. If the vendor is in the EU, the "Rome I" Regulation allows you to choose the law. If you don't choose, the law of the vendor's country (the party effecting the characteristic performance) usually applies. Therefore, as a Czech buyer, you should actively push for a "Choice of Law: Czech Republic" clause.

5. What should I do if a vendor contract dispute has already arisen?
Check if you have notified the defect/breach "without undue delay." Gather evidence. Do not stop payments unless you are sure you have a right to withhold price (§ 2108) or a plea of non-performance (§ 1912). Contact office@arws.cz immediately for an assessment before taking irreversible steps like termination.

6. Are there any recent changes to Czech vendor contract law?
The Civil Code is stable, but case law evolves. Recent decisions confirm that courts are strict on the "predictability" of penalties and the requirement for timely objection to General Terms and Conditions. Keeping contracts updated with current judicial trends is advisable.

Disclaimer: The information contained in this article is for general informational purposes only and serves as a basic guide to the issue. Although we strive for maximum accuracy in the content, legal regulations and their interpretation evolve over time. To verify the current wording of the regulations and their application to your specific situation, it is therefore necessary to contact ARROWS Law Firm directly (office@arws.cz). We accept no responsibility for any damage or complications arising from the independent use of the information in this article without our prior individual legal consultation and expert assessment. Each case requires a tailor-made solution, so please do not hesitate to contact us.