How can a Cypriot company litigate in the Czech Republic

If you operate a Cypriot company with commercial interests in the Czech Republic and face unpaid invoices, contractual disputes, or enforcement issues, this article provides clear, practical answers. ARROWS, a leading Czech law firm based in Prague, combines deep expertise in Czech procedural law and international frameworks to help foreign clients navigate the formalistic Czech court system efficiently and without costly mistakes.

Need advice on this topic? Contact the ARROWS law firm by email office@arws.cz or phone +420 245 007 740. Your question will be answered by "Mgr. Vojtěch Sucharda", an expert on the subject.

Why Czech Courts Have Jurisdiction Over Your Dispute

Czech courts can exercise jurisdiction over commercial disputes involving Cypriot companies under several clearly defined legal bases rooted in EU law. The Brussels I bis Regulation (Regulation EU No 1215/2012) governs jurisdiction across all EU member states, including Cyprus and the Czech Republic, establishing a harmonized framework for cross-border litigation.

The general rule is straightforward: a defendant domiciled in the Czech Republic should be sued before Czech courts. However, Czech courts may also have jurisdiction over disputes involving your Cypriot company based on alternative grounds, particularly when contracts specify Czech jurisdiction through a choice-of-court agreement, or when the place of performance of contractual obligations is located in the Czech Republic. For tort claims, Czech courts have jurisdiction where the harmful event occurred.

The Brussels I bis Regulation applies even when the only international element is an agreed choice of Czech jurisdiction between parties from the same or different Member States. The European Court of Justice confirmed that choice-of-court agreements in favor of Czech courts are valid and binding under Article 25 of the Brussels I bis Regulation, giving parties significant freedom to determine their preferred forum.

What many foreign companies fail to realize is that while EU regulations provide the legal framework for jurisdiction, the actual conduct of proceedings follows rigid Czech procedural rules that differ radically from those in more digitally efficient jurisdictions like Cyprus. This procedural gap represents the single greatest risk to foreign litigants, as seemingly simple steps contain hidden exceptions, strict deadlines, and documentation traps that can result in case dismissal regardless of the merits of your claim.

What Documentation Must You Prepare Before Filing?

Before a Cypriot company can initiate court proceedings in the Czech Republic, strict formal documentation requirements must be met with absolute precision. The Power of Attorney (PoA) authorizing your legal representative must be accompanied by a translated and notarized extract from the Cypriot Commercial Register. This official extract must prove your company's legal existence and clearly identify who is legally authorized to act on behalf of the company.

This requirement is not merely administrative—it represents a common procedural trap. If your Cypriot entity fails to submit a properly verified PoA with the necessary supporting corporate documentation, the Czech court may reject the filing altogether, causing costly delays that significantly increase the risk of your claim becoming time-barred.

The extract from the Cypriot Commercial Register must bear an Apostille certification under the Hague Convention, as both Cyprus and the Czech Republic are signatories. After apostillization, the document must be translated into Czech by an officially registered court translator (soudní tlumočník). Any document submitted in a foreign language—including English—without a certified Czech translation will be ignored by the court as inadmissible evidence.

ARROWS handles this complex cross-border documentation process daily, ensuring that extracts, apostilles, and certified translations meet Czech court requirements from the outset. We significantly reduce your time investment and minimize the risk of rejection. For immediate assistance with documentation preparation, write to us at office@arws.cz.

The Mandatory Pre-Action Notice Requirement

Under § 142a of the Czech Code of Civil Procedure, you are legally required to send a formal pre-action notice (předžalobní upozornění) to the Czech debtor at least seven days before filing your lawsuit. This is not a courtesy—it is a mandatory procedural prerequisite. Failure to send this notice properly will prevent you from recovering your legal costs even if you win the case.

The pre-action notice must contain specific mandatory elements: clear identification of both the creditor (your Cypriot company) and the debtor, a precise statement of the legal basis for the claim (such as "unpaid invoice No. X under contract dated Y"), the exact amount owed including principal, default interest, and costs, a demand for payment within a specific period (at least seven days), and a clear warning that legal proceedings will be initiated if the debtor fails to comply.

The notice can be sent via registered mail, email, data box, or any other method that ensures delivery to the debtor. What appears simple in theory becomes complex in practice: determining the correct legal basis, calculating default interest according to Czech law, and formulating the demand in legally precise Czech language requires specialized expertise. Even minor errors in this document can compromise your ability to recover costs later.

Many foreign companies underestimate the strategic importance of a professionally drafted pre-action notice. A significant proportion of Czech debtors voluntarily comply after receiving a formal notice from a reputable Czech law firm, avoiding court proceedings entirely. ARROWS drafts and serves these notices in compliance with all procedural requirements. Need legal help? Contact us at office@arws.cz.

FAQ – Legal tips about Pre-Action Requirements

• Can I skip the pre-action notice if the debtor is obviously insolvent?
  No. The pre-action notice is mandatory regardless of the debtor's financial situation. Skipping this step will prevent cost recovery and may result in procedural deficiencies. ARROWS ensures full compliance with all pre-litigation requirements—email us at office@arws.cz.
• What happens if the debtor does not respond to the pre-action notice?
  If the debtor fails to respond or pay within the specified period, you proceed with filing a lawsuit or payment order. The served pre-action notice becomes crucial evidence supporting your claim for legal costs. For immediate assistance, write to us at office@arws.cz.
• Does the pre-action notice need to be in Czech?
  While not strictly required, a notice in Czech ensures clarity and demonstrates procedural seriousness. ARROWS prepares all notices in proper legal Czech to maximize effectiveness. Get tailored legal solutions by writing to office@arws.cz.

Which Accelerated Procedures Are Available for Monetary Claims?

When pursuing undisputed monetary claims against a Czech debtor, Cypriot companies have strategic options between two distinct accelerated paths: the European Order for Payment (EOP) governed by EU law, and the domestic Czech electronic payment order.

The European Order for Payment procedure, established under Regulation (EC) No 1896/2006, offers a highly efficient avenue for cross-border claims. The key advantage is that once issued by a competent EU court, the EOP is automatically recognized and enforceable in all other EU Member States without requiring a separate recognition procedure (exequatur). 

Cypriot companies can complete the standardized Form A in Czech, Slovak, or English and submit it to the competent Czech court. The court typically issues the order within 30 days, and the defendant has only 15 days to either pay or file a formal objection. If no objection is filed, the order becomes a final enforceable judgment.

For domestic claims, the Czech electronic payment order (elektronický platební rozkaz—EPR) provides a rapid alternative. The process is entirely electronic using a prescribed form available on the Ministry of Justice website. The court fee for an EPR is only 4% of the claimed amount (for amounts exceeding CZK 20,000), compared to 5% for standard lawsuits. Until recently, EPRs were limited to claims under CZK 1 million, but this monetary ceiling was abolished in 2024, making EPRs available for higher-value claims.

However, the EPR cannot be used if the defendant's address is unknown, if documents must be served abroad, or if the defendant is a minor. For Cypriot companies, this means that if your Czech debtor must be served outside Czech territory (for example, at a foreign address), the EPR procedure is unavailable, and you must use either the standard lawsuit or the EOP procedure.

Both procedures require that the claim is undisputed and documented. You must provide a "solid foundation" of clear documentary evidence: signed contracts, issued invoices, confirmed delivery notes, and any correspondence from the debtor acknowledging the debt. This front-loaded burden of proof is characteristic of Czech procedure and requires careful preparation before filing.

ARROWS evaluates which accelerated procedure best suits your specific situation, prepares all necessary documentation, and files the claim electronically to maximize speed and minimize costs. Our lawyers handle these procedures daily, ensuring compliance with all technical requirements. Our lawyers are ready to assist you—email us at office@arws.cz.

Risks and Penalties	How ARROWS Helps (office@arws.cz)
Incorrect choice between EOP and EPR procedures leads to delays and additional costs.	Strategic procedure selection – We analyze your claim and recommend the optimal accelerated path.
Missing or incomplete documentation causes court rejection.	Document preparation and verification – We ensure all contracts, invoices, and evidence meet Czech court standards.
Failure to meet electronic filing requirements for EPR.	Electronic filing services – ARROWS handles all technical submission requirements, including recognized electronic signatures.
Incorrect calculation of court fees results in case discontinuation.	Court fee calculation and payment – We calculate precise fees and arrange timely payment to prevent procedural termination.
Service of documents abroad makes EPR unavailable.	Cross-border service coordination – We determine service requirements and execute proper international delivery.

How Do Language Requirements Impact Your Case?

All court proceedings in the Czech Republic are conducted exclusively in Czech. This is not a minor inconvenience—it is a fundamental procedural requirement that affects every document, piece of evidence, and communication with the court.

Any document submitted in a foreign language, including English, must be accompanied by an officially certified translation (soudní překlad) performed by a court-appointed translator registered with a Czech court. This requirement applies to all evidence: contracts, invoices, emails, correspondence, corporate documents, and expert reports. A contract written in English, which you believe is your primary protection, has no evidentiary value in a Czech court until it is officially translated and certified.

The cost and time required for certified translations can be substantial, particularly for extensive contractual documentation or voluminous email correspondence. Each page must be translated by a registered translator who affixes an official stamp and signature, and these translations must often be apostilled if they will be used outside the Czech Republic.

Foreign companies frequently underestimate this requirement, assuming that English-language documents will be accepted given the international nature of their business. This assumption is dangerous. Czech judges will not consider untranslated evidence, regardless of how compelling it may be. The failure to provide proper translations can result in the court deciding against you simply because your evidence was inadmissible.

What many Cypriot companies do not realize is that even routine procedural correspondence from the court arrives in Czech, and formal responses must be submitted in Czech. Missing a deadline because you did not understand a court notice is not considered a valid excuse.

ARROWS provides comprehensive translation management services, coordinating with certified court translators to ensure all documentation meets Czech legal standards. We also handle all Czech-language correspondence with courts, ensuring you never miss a critical deadline. Do not hesitate to contact our firm - office@arws.cz.

What Are the Court Fees and Litigation Costs?

Court fees in the Czech Republic are calculated as a percentage of the monetary value of the dispute. For standard lawsuits involving monetary claims, the court fee is 5% of the amount in dispute. For amounts up to CZK 20,000, there is a fixed fee of CZK 1,000. For amounts exceeding CZK 20,000 but not exceeding CZK 40 million, the fee is 5% of the claim amount. For claims over CZK 40 million, the fee is CZK 2 million plus 1% of the amount exceeding CZK 40 million, capped at a maximum of CZK 4.1 million.

For electronic payment orders (EPR), the fee structure is more favorable: 4% of the claimed amount for sums exceeding CZK 20,000. This provides financial motivation for using the EPR procedure when applicable.​

Failure to pay the court fee results in the court discontinuing the proceedings. The fee must be paid within the deadline specified by the court, typically within a few days of filing. Proof of payment must be submitted to the court.

Beyond court fees, you must consider legal fees for representation. Under Czech law, the unsuccessful party is generally ordered to reimburse the successful party for reasonable legal costs. This creates significant financial pressure on defendants but also means that if you lose, you will bear not only your own legal costs but also those of your opponent.

Enforcement costs are additional. Once you obtain a judgment, enforcement (exekuce) is carried out by private court-appointed bailiffs (soudní exekutoři). The bailiff's fee ranges from 1% to 15% of the amount enforced, calculated according to the Executor Tariff established by the Ministry of Justice. These costs are generally borne by the debtor or deducted from the enforced amount. However, if the debtor has no assets, the creditor may face unrecoverable costs.

Enforcement proceedings can take from several months to several years, depending on the debtor's assets, cooperation, and whether objections are raised. If the debtor objects to enforcement, the process can extend significantly.

ARROWS provides transparent cost estimates at the outset of your case, ensuring you understand all potential expenses. We are insured for damages up to CZK 500 million, providing you with financial security if errors occur. For a comprehensive cost analysis of your potential litigation, reach out to ARROWS at office@arws.cz.

How Is Recognition and Enforcement Handled?

One of the greatest advantages for Cypriot companies litigating in the Czech Republic is the automatic recognition and enforcement of judgments within the EU under the Brussels I bis Regulation. The Regulation abolished the exequatur procedure, which previously required an intermediate step to have a judgment from one Member State declared enforceable in another.

This means that if you obtain a judgment from a Czech court against a Cypriot defendant, that judgment is automatically enforceable in Cyprus without requiring a separate recognition procedure. Conversely, if you have an existing Cypriot judgment against a Czech defendant, it is automatically recognized in the Czech Republic.

For judgments from EU member states, recognition is generally automatic, requiring no special recognition decision. The procedure for enforcement is governed by the law of the Member State where enforcement is sought. Under Article 41(1) of the Brussels I bis Regulation, the enforcement procedure in the Czech Republic follows Czech law.

To initiate enforcement (exekuce) in the Czech Republic, you must engage a local Czech lawyer to file a formal enforcement motion (návrh na nařízení exekuce) with the competent Czech court. This is a legal requirement—foreign creditors cannot personally initiate enforcement. The court then authorizes a judicial bailiff (soudní exekutor) who carries out the enforcement.

The foreign judgment must be accompanied by a certificate of enforceability issued by the court of origin, plus an officially certified translation into Czech. If these formal conditions are not met, the Czech court will refuse to authorize enforcement.

Even with automatic recognition, the enforcement process is not simple. The bailiff must locate assets, which can be challenging if the debtor is uncooperative. The bailiff can seize bank accounts, garnish wages, attach movable property, and even auction real estate, but each step has procedural requirements and potential delays.

Cyprus and the Czech Republic also have a bilateral investment treaty (BIT) signed in 2001, which provides additional protections for investors and establishes mechanisms for investment dispute resolution through international arbitration. However, this treaty primarily addresses investor-state disputes rather than commercial litigation between private parties.

ARROWS handles the entire enforcement process, from filing the enforcement motion to coordinating with bailiffs and monitoring asset recovery. We operate in 90 countries globally through our ARROWS International network, enabling seamless cross-border enforcement. We support over 150 joint-stock companies and 250 limited liability companies in the Czech Republic and are regular partners of foreign corporate lawyers for handling these specialized matters. For immediate assistance, write to us at office@arws.cz.

Risks and Penalties	How ARROWS Helps (office@arws.cz)
Failure to file enforcement motion through local Czech lawyer prevents execution.	Mandatory local representation – ARROWS files all enforcement motions on your behalf as required by law.
Missing certificate of enforceability or certified translation halts enforcement.	Document certification and translation services – We obtain all required certificates and arrange certified translations.
Debtor assets cannot be located, making judgment uncollectable.	Asset investigation services – We coordinate with bailiffs to identify bank accounts, property, and other assets for attachment.
Lengthy enforcement delays erode the value of your judgment.	Enforcement monitoring and acceleration – ARROWS actively manages enforcement proceedings to maximize recovery speed.
Enforcement costs exceed recovered amounts when debtors are insolvent.	Pre-litigation solvency assessment – We evaluate debtor creditworthiness before initiating proceedings to avoid uneconomical litigation.

What Time Limits Apply to Your Claims?

The general limitation period for commercial claims in the Czech Republic is three years. This period begins to run from the date when the creditor knew or should have known that they had the right to claim the debt.

For invoice-based claims, the Czech Supreme Court recently clarified a critical point: the limitation period does not necessarily begin on the invoice due date, but rather from the date when the creditor could first issue the invoice. This means that if you delay issuing an invoice after completing work or delivering goods, the limitation period may already be running, and it could expire before the invoice due date.

This interpretation significantly affects commercial practice, particularly for complex contracts where there may be delays between completion of work and invoice issuance. If you issue an invoice months after the limitation period has started running, you may discover that your claim is already time-barred when you attempt to enforce it.

The limitation period can be interrupted by the debtor's acknowledgment of the claim or by initiating legal proceedings. Once interrupted, a new three-year period begins to run. For intentional acts causing damage, the objective limitation period extends to 15 years from when the damage occurred, with a subjective period of 3 years from when the damage was discovered. For negligent acts, the objective period is 10 years.

Foreign companies often fail to monitor Czech limitation periods carefully because they assume the periods are similar to those in their home jurisdiction. In Cyprus and many other jurisdictions, limitation periods may be longer, and the rules for when the period begins to run may differ. Relying on these assumptions can result in losing otherwise valid claims simply because time has expired.

ARROWS monitors limitation periods for all client matters and ensures that claims are filed before expiration. We also advise on strategies to interrupt limitation periods and preserve claims. In the Czech Republic, the general limitation period for a commercial claim is only three years—significantly shorter than in many jurisdictions. Do not risk losing your claim due to time-bar issues. For immediate assistance, write to us at office@arws.cz.

FAQ – Legal tips about Limitation Periods

• Does sending a demand letter interrupt the limitation period?
  Only the debtor's written acknowledgment of the debt or initiating formal court proceedings interrupts the limitation period under Czech law. A demand letter alone does not interrupt the period unless the debtor responds acknowledging the debt. ARROWS drafts demand letters designed to elicit acknowledgment—contact us at office@arws.cz.
• What if I discover the limitation period is about to expire?
  If your limitation period is approaching expiration, immediate action is required. ARROWS can prepare and file an urgent lawsuit or payment order to preserve your claim. Time-sensitive matters receive priority handling. Need legal help? Contact us at office@arws.cz.
• Are limitation periods different for different types of claims?
  Yes. While the general period is three years, some specific claims have shorter periods (e.g., one year for transport law and lease contracts). ARROWS evaluates the specific limitation period applicable to your claim. Get tailored legal solutions by writing to office@arws.cz.

Why Mandatory Legal Representation Matters

While EU companies generally have the right to represent themselves in Czech courts, the complexity of Czech procedural law makes professional legal representation essential in practice. For certain procedural stages, representation by a licensed Czech lawyer (advokát) is absolutely mandatory.

Most critically, representation by a licensed Czech lawyer is mandatory for filing a dovolání—an extraordinary appeal to the Supreme Court of the Czech Republic. This restriction recognizes the extreme complexity of this appellate level.

Beyond mandatory representation requirements, the practical realities of Czech litigation make self-representation nearly impossible for foreign companies. The requirement that all proceedings be conducted in Czech, the strict formalism of procedural rules, the front-loaded burden of proof, and the numerous procedural traps all create substantial barriers.

Czech procedural law operates on the principle that "whoever alleges must prove". This means you must present all evidence supporting your claim at the earliest stages, organized according to Czech evidentiary rules. The judge will not guide you or suggest what evidence to submit. If you fail to present evidence properly or within the correct timeframe, you may be unable to introduce it later, even if it decisively proves your case.

The Czech legal system also differs fundamentally from common law systems in its approach to precedent, legal reasoning, and the role of judges. For companies headquartered in common law jurisdictions like the UK, these differences can be profound and lead to strategic errors if not properly understood.

ARROWS bridges these legal and cultural gaps daily. Our lawyers have deep expertise in both Czech civil procedure and international commercial law. We understand how foreign legal concepts translate into Czech legal frameworks and anticipate the procedural pitfalls that foreign clients typically encounter. We are regular partners of corporate in-house counsel for foreign firms, providing specialized local representation while coordinating seamlessly with your internal legal team. For immediate assistance, write to us at office@arws.cz.

How ARROWS Protects Your Commercial Interests

Successfully litigating in the Czech Republic as a Cypriot company requires more than knowledge of substantive law—it demands procedural precision, cultural understanding, and strategic foresight. Every step, from preparing initial documentation to enforcing final judgments, contains hidden complexities that can derail even meritorious claims.

As a law firm based in Prague, European Union, ARROWS provides comprehensive litigation support specifically designed for foreign clients. Our services include: 

• Legal analysis and strategy development – We evaluate your claim, assess procedural options, and recommend the optimal litigation strategy tailored to your specific circumstances.
• Documentation preparation and verification – We obtain all required corporate extracts, arrange apostilles, coordinate certified translations, and ensure every document meets Czech court standards from the outset.
• Pre-action notices and demand letters – We draft and serve mandatory pre-action notices in full compliance with Czech procedural requirements, maximizing the likelihood of voluntary settlement.
• Filing of lawsuits and payment orders – We prepare statements of claim, calculate and pay court fees, and file all documents electronically or through appropriate channels.
• Full representation in court proceedings – Our lawyers represent you at all court hearings, present evidence, examine witnesses, and argue legal points before Czech judges.
• Accelerated procedure applications – We evaluate whether your claim qualifies for European Order for Payment or electronic payment order procedures and execute these applications efficiently.
• Enforcement and judgment execution – We file enforcement motions, coordinate with court-appointed bailiffs, monitor asset recovery, and pursue debtors until full payment is obtained.
• Cross-border coordination – Through our ARROWS International network, we provide seamless coordination when enforcement extends beyond Czech borders, operating in 90 countries globally.
• Professional training and compliance programs – We offer training for your management and employees on Czech commercial law, contract management, and risk prevention, with certificates of completion.

ARROWS is insured for damages up to CZK 500 million, providing you with financial protection if errors occur. This insurance coverage significantly exceeds standard market levels and demonstrates our commitment to professional excellence. It is safer for you to have litigation handled by professionals with this level of coverage rather than risk costly mistakes through self-representation.

We support over 150 joint-stock companies, 250 limited liability companies, and 51 municipalities and regions. Our clients include foreign SMEs, international corporations, investment groups, and in-house legal departments of multinational companies. We are known for speed, high quality, and our ability to connect clients with one another when business or investment interests align.

ARROWS welcomes innovative business ideas and investment opportunities and actively facilitates connections among our international client base. When appropriate, we introduce clients who can benefit from mutual business relationships, leveraging our extensive network across 90 countries.

If you do not want to risk procedural errors, missed deadlines, inadmissible evidence, or unenforced judgments, you can safely entrust the entire matter to ARROWS. Our lawyers handle Czech commercial litigation daily, which significantly reduces your time investment and minimizes the risk of costly mistakes. For immediate assistance, write to us at office@arws.cz.

Risks and Penalties	How ARROWS Helps (office@arws.cz)
Procedural errors cause case dismissal despite valid underlying claim	Comprehensive procedural management – ARROWS handles every procedural step with precision, eliminating risk of dismissal on technical grounds.
Language barriers result in missed deadlines and inadmissible evidence	Full Czech-language representation – We handle all court communications and provide certified translations of all evidence.
Lack of local legal knowledge leads to strategic mistakes	Local expertise with international perspective – Our lawyers combine deep Czech law knowledge with understanding of Cypriot and international business practices.
Lengthy proceedings drain resources and management attention	Efficient case management – We handle the entire litigation process, freeing your management to focus on business operations.
Unenforced judgments provide no practical benefit	End-to-end enforcement services – We pursue enforcement until actual payment is obtained, coordinating across borders when necessary.

FAQ – Most common legal questions about Cypriot companies litigating in Czech Republic

1. Can a Cypriot company file a lawsuit in the Czech Republic without a local lawyer?
Technically yes for most proceedings, but practically inadvisable. All proceedings are in Czech, strict procedural formalism applies, and mistakes can result in case dismissal. For certain appeals, local lawyer representation is mandatory. ARROWS provides full representation from filing through enforcement—contact us at office@arws.cz.

2. How long does commercial litigation typically take in the Czech Republic?
If the claim is undisputed and you use accelerated procedures (EOP or EPR), you can obtain an enforceable decision within 2-3 months. Standard litigation takes 6-18 months for first instance, with appeals adding 6-12 months. Enforcement adds several months to several years depending on debtor assets. ARROWS pursues the fastest path available for your specific case. For immediate assistance, write to us at office@arws.cz.

3. What happens if I win the case but the Czech debtor has no assets?
If the debtor has no recoverable assets, enforcement may be unsuccessful, and you may not recover your judgment or costs. ARROWS provides pre-litigation solvency assessments to evaluate debtor creditworthiness and advise on the economic viability of pursuing litigation. This prevents investing in uneconomical cases. Need legal help? Contact us at office@arws.cz.

4. Can I enforce a Cypriot court judgment in the Czech Republic?
Yes. Under the Brussels I bis Regulation, Cypriot judgments are automatically recognized in the Czech Republic without requiring exequatur. However, you must engage a Czech lawyer to file an enforcement motion, and the judgment must be accompanied by required certificates and certified translations. ARROWS handles the entire cross-border enforcement process. Get tailored legal solutions by writing to office@arws.cz.

5. What if my contract with the Czech party specifies arbitration rather than court litigation?
If your contract contains a valid arbitration clause, disputes must be resolved through arbitration rather than court litigation. The Czech Republic is a signatory to the New York Convention on Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, making arbitration awards enforceable. ARROWS represents clients in both court litigation and arbitration proceedings. For immediate assistance, write to us at office@arws.cz.

6. Are Czech court proceedings public or confidential?
Czech court proceedings are generally public, and judgments are published in the court's public database. Specific confidentiality protections may apply to business secrets if properly requested. ARROWS advises on confidentiality strategies and can request closed hearings when appropriate grounds exist. Our lawyers are ready to assist you—email us at office@arws.cz.